The first years of a child’s life are crucial for their cognitive, emotional, social, behavioural, and physical development. Given the importance of early childhood development (ECD), the Zambian government has committed to scaling up ECD programmes that support health, nutrition, and early learning/stimulation for children. Progress from these programmes have been mixed: between 2007 and 2014 the infant mortality rate dropped from 70 per 1,000 live births to 45, while the broader under-5 mortality rate fell from 119 per 1,000 live births to 75 (CSO, 2014).
This project, designed to explore parenting practices across various regions within the country, aims to further advance ongoing efforts to support ECD by informing parenting programmes intended to promote optimal child development. Interventions supporting positive parenting practices, particularly early in life, have been identified as an effective strategy to improve ECD outcomes. An understanding of the traditional cultural context in which children develop is critical not only to ensure child-sensitive and responsive programmes but also to foster optimal and healthy child development through harnessing local resources.
The study team conducted qualitative data collection in 10 districts across five Zambian provinces to investigate parenting practices and beliefs in various regions of the country. The below briefly summarises the key findings:
General Care
Mothers in our study districts typically have primary responsibility for the general care of their children. Older siblings, relatives, and neighbours also frequently care for children, and in the case of older siblings this often includes tasks such as feeding, bathing, dressing, and disciplining. Sibling help allows mothers to share the burden of care and engage in activities such as farming and household tasks. Many fathers are largely absent from everyday activities in the household, although a few fathers in our study reported helping with childcare. In some cases, mothers take over fathers’ traditional role as the breadwinner. Service providers reported that the absence of fathers typically is caused by unemployment and, in some cases, alcohol abuse.
Approaches to Learning
Respondents indicated that they generally value creativity and curiosity in children. However, in some cases overly curious children are viewed negatively. Play and games (either independent or with other children) are considered key ways through which children learn and curiosity and creativity are fostered. Games and activities with practical applications (such as basket-weaving or repairing household objects) are highly valued as they prepare children to perform income generating activities as they mature. Finally, respondents report that children learn a great deal through imitating others’ behaviours, especially of older siblings and parents.
Cognitive Competence
All types of respondents from our study areas tend to view intelligence as a combination of academic, social, and emotional competencies. Intelligent children are not only able to successfully run errands and follow directions, they must also be obedient and well-liked by others. Further, it is widely agreed that children’s cognitive competencies develop though everyday activities such as farming and fishing. Counting is a highly important skill that enables children to assist parents in tasks such as selling produce; moreover, knowing how to count prevents children from being cheated or taken advantage of. Counting was also seen as important for enhancing children’s mathematical skills in the classroom; many parents teach children to count before they start school. A number of respondents identified the relationship between nutrition and cognitive development, even identifying specific foods that stimulate intellectual growth.
Language & Literacy
Respondents largely recognised the importance of speaking to children immediately after they are born. In addition, they indicated the importance of children learning to speak and read. Play, songs, and storytelling are key mechanisms through which children’s language and literacy skills develop. When parents believe children are delayed in starting to speak, a common practice is to cut the skin beneath the tongue (to fix the “tongue-tie”). There are limited resources available to children who struggle with speaking or reading, and in many cases parents themselves cannot read.
Physical Development & Well-Being
Most respondents demonstrated an awareness of the benefits of breast feeding and reported that mothers exclusively breastfeed their children up to six months and complementary feeding for children six months and older. At the same time, environmental factors such as poverty and limited food supply limit parents’ ability to supplement breastfeeding.
Respondents indicated that corporal punishment is commonplace for children as young as two years of age, although some parents emphasised the need for non-physical forms of discipline such as scolding, threatening, restricting playtime, or assigning additional household chores. Common methods of physical disciplines include beating, whipping, spanking, and withholding food. Interestingly, numerous respondents saw a distinction between corporal punishment and beating or spanking children, with the former seen as a more severe and less socially acceptable means of discipline. A number of respondents complained about the ‘children’s rights’ discourse and how it has made it more difficult to discipline children since children now feel empowered to report corporal punishment to neighbours or authorities.
Social & Emotional Development
Respondents agreed that it is important for children to feel loved and to be able to talk about their feelings. Parents express love physically (hugging, kissing, holding hands, or carrying young children on their backs), verbally (telling their children they love them), and materially (buying small gifts or sweets, paying school fees). There is considerable emphasis on respecting elders, with most respondents indicating that ideal child behaviour includes being polite and deferential to one’s elders. Other child behaviours that are perceived as positive include being quiet, obedient, helpful, and playing well with others. While respondents reported being highly responsive to upset or crying children, many negatively viewed excessive or unnecessary crying among children (even for the very young).
Spiritual & Moral Development
Across all ten study districts, respondents unanimously viewed spirituality and religion as a critical aspect of children’s development and central to family life in Zambia. Community members in our sample are predominantly Christian, and there is considerable emphasis on children attending church and upholding the morals espoused in the bible. Furthermore, the church plays a central role in guiding parents on how to raise their children and parents often turn to the church or the bible for parenting advice. In some cases, church staff provide formal parenting support services and conduct home visits.
Gender Differences in Parenting and Childcare Practices
Gender differences emerged in a variety of practices, including household responsibilities, sibling care, play, comfort, and emotional expression. Parents, caregivers and service providers saw boys and girls as having different needs, and approached many aspects of childrearing differently based on this perception. In line with the finding that children learn practical life skills through play, boys and girls learn to fulfill traditional gender roles through games and other play activities.
Practices Specific to Girls
Girls appear to have more household responsibilities than boys. Girls are more likely than boys to care for younger siblings, and tend to help in the household with chores such as cooking, pounding cassava, and making nshima. Further, service providers suggested that girls are treated more gently than boys.
Practices Specific to Boys
Boys also report caring for their siblings and conducting related household chores (such as cooking, bathing and feeding younger siblings), although to a lesser extent than girls. In the household, boys are generally tasked with collecting firewood and herding animals. Activities such as making toys, herding cows and fixing household items teach boys how to carry out men’s traditional role of provider.
