Child Poverty in the Philippines
2015
Philippines
demographic_data
111.05 million
Total Population
World Bank, 2021
36.62 million
People
Total Population Under 18
Philippine Statistics Authority, 2018
37.9%
Population Under 18
GSSWA, 2019
20.6%
Prevalence of Female-Headed Households
World Bank, 2017
Lower Middle-Income
World Bank GNI Status
World Bank, 2019
16.7%
Living Below Poverty Line
World Bank, 2018
42.3
GINI Coefficient
World Bank, 2018
0.712
Human Development Index
UNDP, 2019
i
Placed 106th out of the 189 countries and territories in the 2019 Human Development Report.
childrens_living_arrangement
%
Country
NO SOURCE GIVEN
70.3%
Living with Both Parents
DHS 2022
i
Philippines Statistics Authority (PSA) - 2022
18.1%
Living with One Parent
DHS 2022
i
Philippines Statistics Authority (PSA) - 2022
11%
Living with Neither Parent
DHS 2022
i
Philippines Statistics Authority (PSA) - 2022
%
Effective
NO SOURCE GIVEN
children_living_without_bio
11%
Living With a Non-Relative
DHS 2022
31.4%
Children living below poverty line
Philippines Statistics Authority, 2018
i
"ARMM having the highest Poverty Incidence amog children belonging to poor families at 63.1%. Based on UNICEF and Save the Children analysis, the number of children living in poverty has climbed to roughly 1.2 billion since the COVID-19 pandemic began, a 15% increase, or an additional 150 million children since the virus was declared a global crisis (CAF Canada 2021)."
12.4%
Children Engaged in Child Labor
Philippines Statistics Authority, 2015
i
Estimated 26.6 million children 5 to 17 years old in the country based on 2011 National Survey on Children. Working boys (62.9%) outnumbered the working girls (37.1%).
Children with Disabilities
333,269
Children
Census of Population, 2010
i
23% of total population: 55% (boys), 45% (girls)
27%
Left Behind Children (Migration)
UNICEF, 2020
Ethnic Minority children
NO DATA AVAILABLE
DOJ, 2016
i
No data available on children. Known as Indigenous Peoples (IPs) belonging to 110 ethno-linguistic groups. They are mainly concentrated in Northern Luzon (Cordillera Administrative Region, 33%) and Mindanao (61%), with some groups in the Visayas area. Estimated to make up between 10-20% of the national population. (International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA).
Children Affected by HIV
3,000
Children
UNAIDS, 2021
Street Connected Children
NO DATA AVAILABLE
Borgen Project, 2020
i
Estimated between 250,000 - 1 million street connected children. "Among 4.5 million homeless population. Metro Manila and the National Capital Region (NCR) have an estimated 30,000 children on the streets, while nationwide, some 250,000 street children are believed to be plying the streets of major urban centers. From available studies, most are boys aged 7 to 16 years. About 75% of them still return home to families, after working or begging on the streets."
80%
Children Experiencing Violence
National Baseline Study on Violence Against Children (VAC), 2015
i
"8 in 10 children and young people have experience some form of violence in their lifetime that usually begins at home. 60.4% physical violence happened at home, followed by 14.3% in school, 12.5% in the community, 7.1% in the workplace and 6.2% during dating. Physical violence - 66%; pscyological violence - 58%; sexual violence - 19.1%; cyber violence - 43.8%; peer violence - 65%. PNP Crime Information Reporting and Analysis System reported the figure for period Jan-Dec 2020 to be 19,652."
Children in Conflict with the Law
15,896
Children
PNP Crime Information Reporting and Analysis System, 2021
i
"Covered period: January - December 2020. In the year 2020 and early 2021, data on gender shows that male children (93% in both times) are mostly involved in violating the laws than female children. Ages 12-17 (97% and 96%) are the major ages when children are most likely to commit crimes."
Children on the Move
269
Children
UNHCR Global Trends, 2020
i
36 (Asylum-seekers), 127 (Refugees), 106 (Stateless). Age 0-17 years old. To note: huge number of IDPs Returnees & IDPs of (unknown ages) 150,242 and 150,368.
0.2%
Children Displaced by Conflict
End of Childhood Index, 2021
i
"There is evidence of recruitment and use of children (e.g., as child soldiers). Estimated to be 500,000 (DOJ, 2016)."
Unregistered Children
2.60 million
Children
DOJ, 2016
8.5%
Child Marriage
End of Childhood Index Rankings, 2019
i
Aged 15-19 (girls). Estimate from recent MICS or DHS (pending reanalysis).
Child Prostitution
100,000
Children
ECPAT Australia, Children in Prostitution/Victims of Asian Tourism: A Multidisciplinary Approach (undated)
Child Trafficking
5,635
Children
DSWD, 2018
i
52% girls; 48% boys
Children Deprived of Shelter
260,772
Children
PIDS estimate (2009)
i
49% of the population deprived of shelter; mainly in urban areas.
Children in Informal Settlements
1.42 million
Children
PIDS estimate (2009)
0 Families/Parents
0 Children
NO SOURCE GIVEN
0 Families/Parents
0 Children
NO SOURCE GIVEN
Total Family-Based Alternative Care
- - Families/Parents
- - Children
NO SOURCE GIVEN
Foster Care
- - Foster Families/Foster Parents
2,626 Children
i
For the period 2017-2019.
ISS, 2021
Formal Kinship Care
- - Families/Parents
- - Children
NO SOURCE GIVEN
- - Families/Parents
- - Children
NO SOURCE GIVEN
Total Residential Care
- - Settings
- - Children
i
915 private social welfare agencies licensed by the DSWD, 177 agencies operate a total of 197 residential care facilities for children, the majority of which institutions cater to abandoned, neglected and abused children with an average capacity of 30-40 beds (DSWD, 2021).
DSWD, 2021
Larger Institutions
- - Settings
46 Children
i
"DSWD operates 46 residential facilities for children nationwide. Eleven of these serve abandoned or neglected children aged 0-7 years, 11 are for children in conflict with the law, 15 are for girl victims of sexual/physical abuse, and the rest are for street children and other victims of various forms of child abuse. These facilities have an average capacity of 50 beds, except for the National Center for the Mentally Challenged (Elsie Gaches Village) with 400-490 beds, and another two for abandoned and sexually abused children that have 125 beds each. Local Government Units from the 13 regions registered a total of 63 residential facilities, of which three are for drug dependents; five are for children in conflict with the law; six are for abandoned/neglected; 19 are for victims of sexual/physical abuse, prostitution, trafficking and other forms of abuse; 23 are for street children; and seven cater to all other categories of children. The biggest facility can accommodate up to 200 children while the smallest only four." (DSWD, 2021)
DSWD, 2021
Reception and Study Centres for Children
56 Settings
2,391 Children
i
The Reception and Study Center for Children (RSCC) is a 24-hour residential facility that provides social work interventions to children 0-6 years old. It provides protection and rehabilitation services through temporary residential care to neglected, abandoned, abused and exploited children and those with special needs such as children at risk and children who are in need of alternative family care. 2,391 abandoned, neglected and/or surrendered children, 0-6 years of age. (DSWD, 2020)
DSWD, 2020
Havens for Children (State-Run by DSWD)
- - Settings
473 Children
i
"473 boys aged 7 to 13 years who are under recovery from substance abuse" (DSWD, 2020)
DSWD, 2020
Marilac Hills (State-Run by DSWD)
- - Settings
1,004 Children
i
1,004 girls aged 7 - 17 years who are abused or exploited. (DSWD, 2020)
DSWD, 2020
Homes for Girls (State-Run by DSWD)
- - Settings
2,492 Children
i
Rehabilitation and care of girls aged below 18. (DSWD, 2020)
DSWD, 2020
Nayon ng Kabataan (State-Run by DSWD)
- - Settings
751 Children
i
"751 abused, orphaned, abandoned, neglected, and exploited children aged 7 - 17 years." (DSWD, 2020)
NO SOURCE GIVEN
Center for Children with Special Needs
- - Settings
1,918 Children
i
Elsie Gatches Village cares for 1,918 children. (DSWD, 2020)
DSWD, 2020
Youth Care Facilities
- - Settings
2,578 Children
Juvenile and Justice Welfare Council, 2018
Bahay Pag-asa (Intensive Juvenile Intervention and Support Center)
- - Settings
818 Children
i
As stipulated under the Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006, which was amended in 2013, a child between 12 to 15 years old who commits serious crimes "shall be deemed a neglected child under Presidential Decree No. 603, as amended, and shall be mandatorily placed in a special facility within the youth care faculty or ‘Bahay Pag-asa’."
Juvenile and Justice Welfare Council, 2018
Regional Rehabilitation Center for the Youth (for CiCL)
- - Settings
1,738 Children
Juvenile and Justice Welfare Council, 2018
Lancet Global Study Estimate of Children Living in Institutional Care
161,075 Children
Desmond, et al, 2020
adoption
NO DATA AVAIABLE
Country
NO SOURCE GIVEN
153
children
Inter-country Adoption
HCCH, 2020
i
This figure is for the period: 2015-2019.
0
children
Kafala
MJF, 2018
i
In minding the cultural context of the southern regions of the Philippines with Muslim majority populations, OIC-Assistant Bureau Director, Rosali D. Dagulo shared that DSWD has been exploring the implementation of the child care placement in the provinces of Zamboanga, Cotabato and Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). And currently working with the Philippines Centre for Islam & Democracy (PCID) on crafting the legislative framework for the service provision.
536
Children
Child Declared Legally Available for Adoption - CDCLAA
DSWD, 2018
NO DATA AVAIABLE
Effective
NO SOURCE GIVEN
93.4%
Children with Both Parents Alive
DHS 2022
5.7%
Children with One Parent Alive
DHS 2022
0.3%
Children with Both Parents Dead
DHS 2022
Country
NO SOURCE GIVEN
Effective
NO SOURCE GIVEN
NO DATA AVAILABLE
Social Welfare Spending
NO SOURCE GIVEN
Alternative Care Policy in Line with the 2009 Guidelines
Yes
MJF, 2018
i
The principal creed of alternative care provision revolves around the Alternative Care of Children Act (2016) purports in Section 5 (b) the agencies are "to support efforts to keep children in, or return to the care of their family or, failing this, to find another appropriate and permanent solution".
Commitment to Deinstitutionalistion
Yes
3rd and 4th CRC Periodic Reports, 2007.
i
In 2004, DSWD issued a Memorandum Circular No 22. "Policy on the De-institutionalization of Children".
Comprehensive Child Protection Law
Yes
GSSWA, 2019
i
The Philippines ratified the UNCRC in 1990. In the child protection field alone, there are several main laws that provide a mandate for the social services workforce: the Special Protection of Children against Child Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination Amendment Act (2003); the Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act (2003); the Anti-Violence against Women and their Children Act (2004); the Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act (2006); the Anti-Child Pornography Act (2009); the Children’s Emergency Relief and Protection Act (2016); and Children in Situations of Armed Conflict Act (2011). These laws and their continued development are the focus of policy debates in the fields of child protection, education and mental health.
Continuum of Alternative Care Services Available
Yes
NO SOURCE GIVEN
Data System
Mostly
NO SOURCE GIVEN
Existence of a Regulatory Body and Regulatory System
Yes
MJF, 2018
i
"All NGOs that identify as Social Welfare Development Agencies (SWDAs) are required to register with the DSWD. Social Welfare Development Agencies are defined as Peoples Organizations (POs), such as organizations or associations for children, youth, women, senior citizens and people with disabilities.The accreditation of residential care facilities by the Standards Bureau shall have a validity period with a maximum of 5 years." (DSWD Administrative Order No. 11)
Gatekeeping Mechanism/Policy
Mostly
MJF, 2018
i
"Reinforcing the principle of family preservation, the Republic Act 9523 stipulates Section 3 (2) “proof that efforts were made to locate the parent(s) or any known relatives of the child” before permanent care solution, likely adoption i.e. filing a petition for certificate declaring a child legally available for adoption (CDCLAA) is explored for the child. Enabling families who abandoned as well as surrendered children a grace period to resolve their issues for the eventual return of their child back to the family home. DSWD Administrative Order No. 11 reiterated admission to residential care facilities for children should be the last resort and should consider a time frame on the maximum duration of their stay in the facility."
Means of Tracking Progress with Reforms
Mostly
DSWD, 2020
i
"The ABSNET (Area-Based Standards Network) is also seen as an effective strategy with the end goal of institutionalising collaboration with the SWAs that are registered, licensed and accredited by DSWD, which constitute the intermediaries for social welfare service delivery. It provides participative and consultative mechanisms in the areas of standard development; registration, licensing and accreditation; capacity-building and technical assistance. ABSNET has become the avenue as well in the promotion of standard guidelines of the DSWD for all SWAs, private and local government alike. ABSNET assists in advocating the registration, licensing and accreditation of SWAs through their involvement in the initial assessment and peer consultations."
Moratorium on Admission into Institutions for Children Under 3
No
NO SOURCE GIVEN
Moratorium on New Institutions
No
NO SOURCE GIVEN
National Action Plan to Guide Reforms
Yes
MJF, 2018
i
Current political stance and approach to alternative care for children is best captured by the Filipino Child of the Millennium National Plan of Action for Children 2005-2025 (NPAC) and the Philippine National Strategic Framework for Plan Development for Children (Child 21) which identify ‘family’ as a unique sector that needs to be developed, as it provides the basic environment that nurtures the child ‘throughout the life cycle’.
National Standards of Care
Yes
DSWD Administrative Order No. 11, 2007 (Revised Standards on Residential Care Service).
Prevention of Separation Services Available
Yes
UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti, 2015
i
"Services such as: community-driven initiatives of Kapit-Bisig Laban Sa Kahirapan – Comprehensive and Integrated Delivery of Social Services (KalahiCIDSS); capacity building interventions under the Sustainable Livelihood Programme; Conditional Cash Transfer (CCT) Philippines Programme or Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Programme (also known as 4Ps) the biggest government initiative - this is defined as a poverty reduction and human development programme, which invests in the health and education of the poorest households, with a focus on children aged 0–18 years."
Support for Careleavers (in Legislation and in Practice)
Yes
DSWD Administrative Order No. 11, 2007 (Revised Standards on Residential Care Service)
i
Residents who are: a) 15 years old and above: b) who can take care of themselves: c) have no chances for adoption/foster care: and d) those without families/relatives should be prepared for independent or group living.
social_work_force
Workers
NO SOURCE GIVEN
Country
Workers
NO SOURCE GIVEN
Effective
A national workforce assessment and analysis carried out within the past four years
Yes
GSSWA, 2019
A system of licensing/registration of social service professionals
Yes
GSSWA, 2019
i
"The two principal legislative acts – Social Work Act (1965) and Magna Carta for Public Social Workers (2007) have contributed greatly to professionalization of social work. To become a Registered Social Worker in the Philippines, a graduate of BS in Social Work needs to pass the Social Workers Licensure Examination. The examination is conducted by the Board of Social Workers under the supervision of the Professional Regulation Commission (PRC). 127 schools and universities offering social work degree programmes; diploma and in-service courses for other social service workforce; voluntary in-service training available."
key_stakeholders
Key Stakeholders
Add New DataCountry
Government
i
Executive department of the Philippine Government responsible for the protection of the social welfare of rights of Filipinos and to promote the social development.
i
"Ratification of the Senate of the Philippines and the House of Representatives on the “Domestic Administration Adoption and Alternative Child Care Act in 2021. The bill which creates the National Authority for Child Care (NACC), will reorganize the Inter-Country Adoption Board (ICAB), an attached government agency of the DSWD, to handle all applications, petitions, and inquiries regarding alternative child care in the Philippines."
i
The Council for the Welfare of Children is the focal inter-agency body of the Philippine Government for children. It is mandated to coordinate the implementation and enforcement of all laws; formulate, monitor and evaluate policies, programs and measures for children. Providing dynamic leadership in ensuring a child-friendly and child-sensitive society where every child fully enjoys his/her rights.
CWC Committee on the Family and Alternative Parental Care (ComFAPC)
i
Responds to issues and concerns on children involving adoption, migrant workers, foster care, among others i.e. children without parental care and children at risk of losing parental care.
CWC Committee Children in Need of Special Protection (CWC-CNSP)
i
"It provides direction to various subcommittees and recommend project/programme/policies on child protection."
CWC Committee on Children and HIV/AIDS
i
"It responds to the special needs of children and young people, particularly those at risk of HIV by transforming the AMTP into action, as well as other plans."
Committee for the Special Protection of Children (CSPC)
i
"To monitor effective enforcement of RA 7610, the Committee for the Special Protection of Children (CSPC) was created in 1995 through Executive Order No. 275. In 2011, the CSPC has been strengthened through Executive Order No. 53 issued by President Benigno Simeon Aquino III by adding key relevant government agencies and NGOs as regular members of the Committee and providing guidelines for better integration and coordination of existing child protection initiatives, with emphasis on legal and judicial protection. Headed by the Department of Justice (DOJ) and the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD), the Committee is tasked to initiate and coordinate the preparation of a Comprehensive Program on Child Protection (CPCP)."
i
To formulate, develop, and implement policies on adoption, foster care, guardianship leading to adoption and other alternative childcare policies; to set standards and guidelines on adoption, including pre and post legal adoption services; to keep records of all cases of adoption, foster care and guardianship; and accredit child placing and liaison agencies involved in the process of adoption and foster care.
Civil Society Organisations
i
Lead organization of child caring and placement agencies deeply committed to the protection and promotion of the rights and welfare of children.
i
Licensed foster care agencies
i
Licensed foster care agencies
i
Licensed foster care agencies
i
Licensed foster care agencies
i
Licensed foster care agencies
i
Licensed foster care agencies
Virlanie Foundation
i
"Offer the Independent Living programme to their youths who may not get adopted. One of the social preparations the former gives its older children is making them undergo on-the-job trainings with partner agencies like Reyes Haircutters and Lions Clubs International, among others. They are also taught life skills, such as how to commute and manage their own finances. This goes on until such time that they are employed. As well as avails of Makati’s Special Program for Employment of Students (SPES). Also has two residential facilities for children with special needs in Makati City and Cavite City."
i
Local NGOs made up (Child Hope, Kalungan Er-Ma, NCSD and Bahay Tuluyan), which intervene with street children in various sectors: education, school support, hygiene as well as psychosocial support, awareness of children's rights… The objective is clear: to give future perspectives to these young people, improve their living conditions and facilitate their access to public services.
i
Halfway house for homeless and at-risk children, connecting them with relatives who have the resources and motivation to support them. As part of the process, the Center helps new residents—many of whom may not know their given names or birthdays—track down their own identities. Reconnecting these children with their relatives is generally far better than the alternative of seeing them enter the foster care system as it provides them with the important developmental influence of family and belonging. Additionally, the Center organizes a variety of educational and recreational activities to keep its residents focused on progress and away from returning to the streets. As of July 2020, the Center had provided services, including shelter, to nearly 5,200 children.
i
Providing care and support for children living and working on the streets, based in two locations.
i
8 residential childcare centre across the country.
Effective
Other Relevant Reforms
Add New DataEffective
NO SOURCE GIVEN
Child Protection
i
Reported recent proposals to strengthen the integrated child protection systems, operationalization of the national framework to strengthen the social service workforce and the Philippine Plan of Action to End Violence Against Children (PPAEVAC), professional development and training of social workers/paraprofessionals; mobilization of the professional social work associations. Formal signing of commitment by representatives of multi-sector groups/ organizations to adopt the principles and mechanisms to strengthen the child protection systems and the social service workforce. "In addition, the Supreme Court released the 2019 Revised Rule on Children in Conflict with the Law, effective on 07 July 2019 (“Revised CICL Rules”)."
UNICEF, 2019
Decentralisation
i
"Local Councils for the Protection of Children are organised from village to national level, and are composed of government, NGOs and other stakeholders. The Councils also monitor the implementation of the Day Care Law and the Early Childhood Care and Development Act of 2000, which provide a comprehensive, integrative and sustainable programme for children. The Local Government Code paves the way for the devolution of basic services to the local government units, where the basic services are made accessible to the family and community whenever needed, which include, amongst others, providing family counseling, parent education programmes and livelihood assistance."
DSWD, 2020
Education
CWC, 2021
i
"DepEd adopted DO 12, s. 2020 or the Basic Education Learning Continuity Plan (BE-LCP) for School Year (SY) 2020-2021 in Light of the COVID-19 Public Health Emergency. Includes:
• Modifications in the Alternative Learning System (ALS) in line with the pandemic as well as various distance learning modalities (ADMs) including Modular Distance Learning (print and digital), Online Distance Learning (ODL), Educational TV, Radio-Based Instruction, Homeschooling, and Blended Distance Learning Programmes
• As regards child protection, (i) conduct of the Webinar series on Child Rights and Child Protection with the theme, Isulong: Karapatan ng Bata sa Edukasyon sa Panahon ng COVID-193, (ii) conduct of the Second National Summit on the Rights of Child in Education (2020), (iii) conduct of Cybersafety training, (iv) Downloading of Program Support Funds (PSF) to DepEd Regional Offices (ROs) for the reproduction and distribution of Information, Education and Communication (IEC) materials and the conduct of capacity-building.
More notably, DepEd issued DepEd Order No. 3, s. 202128 in January 2021 creating the Child Rights in Education Desk (CREDe) and the Child Protection Unit (CPU)."
Stress and Anxiety Management for Children in Residential Care Facilities
JICA, 2020
i
A series of trainings for house parents and social workers on stress and anxiety management and teaching children health and sanitation management was launched this month to benefit 1,607 disadvantaged children in some of the Philippines' residential care facilities (RCFs). A partnership between Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and Japanese non-profit organization A Child's Trust is Ours to Nurture (ACTION) to build the capacity of workers in RCFs on anxiety management and in teaching children how to cope as part of interventions to support children during the pandemic.
Project to Strengthen the Support Systems for Children in Residential Care Facilities and Communities
JICA, 2021
i
"The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) is supporting a life skills development and rehabilitation project for Children In Conflict with the Law (CICL) in the Philippines due to the coronavirus pandemic's widening impact on disadvantaged children. The project was launched mid 2021 Project in 11 regions with partnership with Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD), Juvenile Justice and Welfare Council (JJWC), and Japanese non-profit organization A Child's Trust is Ours to Nurture (ACTION). The project will develop life skills intervention toolkit for children, as well as train house parents and social workers on implementing life skills activities not only in the Philippines but also in Japanese centers."
drivers_of_institutionalisation
Drivers of Institutionaliziation
Add New DataCountry
Push Factors
Poverty
i
DOJ, 2016
Working Parents (Overseas)
i
DOJ, 2016
Effective
key_research_and_information
Key Data Sources
Add New DataCountry
Effective
Displaying 51 - 60 of 85
Employing focus groups and participant-observation, this exploratory study examined areas of personal development, knowledge, and skills of young women who were formally in residential care in the Philippines to determine success factors for young women with traumatic histories.
This article from the PIA notes that the Regional Juvenile Justice and Welfare Committee-10 (RJJWC) is set to present a resolution on forging commitments from local government units to support children at risk and children in conflict with the law.
As part of phase one of the development of the Martin James Foundation's Asia Care Network, comprehensive studies of the care system in each country were conducted to highlight the need for developing alternative care systems across South-East Asia. This case study highlights the relevant data from the Philippines.
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This booklet is based on a recent internal desk review of Save the Children’s and partners’ work against physical and humiliating punishment of children, commissioned by Save the Children Sweden. It aims to present best practices, to show what methods have worked around the world, and to spread knowledge about results achieved and lessons learned when it comes to law reform and positive discipline.
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President Aquino of the Philippines has recently signed into law the “Children’s Emergency Relief and Protection Act,” an Act which ensures the protection of children “in times of calamity, disaster, and other emergency situations.”
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Institutions are invited to submit a proposal by 10:00 AM EST, 04 September 2015.
The Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) in the Philippines has issued a statement that it will continue to advocate for legal adoptions in the country.
Using panel data from the Philippines' Family Income and Expenditure Survey (FIES), this paper also looks into how such dynamics affects children's welfare. Meanwhile, to complement the profile on child poverty, this paper scrutinizes how the government has faired so far in addressing poverty via its biggest social protection programme, the Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program (4Ps). The brief review also touches on a variant of the Pantawid Pamilya that caters to street families, particularly its design and targeting strategy, and other Department of Social Welfare and Development programmes involving the welfare of children.
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This article investigates the relationships and differences between statelessness and migration. Its particular focus is on migration in Malaysia and how migration can lead to statelessness.
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